Heidi Parthena White, Author at Tata & Howard

Water Mains — Then and Now

Water mains play a crucial role in modern day civilization and contribute greatly to public health. Water mains have been in use for over 4000 years, and, through the years, huge strides have been made in the engineering and construction of this critical infrastructure.

Early Mains

The first known underground water mains were constructed by the ancient Minoan civilization between 2200 and 1400 BCE. Constructed of terra cotta, these ancient mains supplied water to the Palace of Knossos. In fact, the ancient Minoans were incredibly advanced for their time, as they also had flushing toilets, sewer piping and drainage, and even rainwater harvesting capabilities. Amazingly enough, the water mains of Knossos were over 1,000 years ahead of their time, as there is no historical evidence of any other water mains until the time of the Roman Empire, between 312 BCE and 500 AD.

Remains of part of the famed Roman aqueducts

The Roman Empire saw a time of incredible engineering achievement, including the invention of concrete, the construction of bridges and roads, and of course, the innovation of the famous aqueducts. Using gravity to transport water from the outlying hills to the city, these aqueducts, the longest of which was 57 miles, were an incredible engineering accomplishment — and some still stand today. During the early years of the Roman Empire, only the very wealthiest of Romans had water piped directly into their homes via rudimentary water mains, which were constructed of hollowed out logs or drilled stone. Later, water was piped to additional affluent homes via lead pipes. While some argue that the fall of Rome can be attributed to lead poisoning, there is no hard evidence that this theory is true.

Middle Years

Circa 1790 wooden water main from Boston, Massachusetts

Wooden pipes were used in 16th and 17th century Europe, and in 18th and 19th century Canada and United States. To this day, wooden pipes are occasionally unearthed during construction events in Boston, Massachusetts. Wooden pipes did present some problems in that they tended to attract insects and to rot. Also, they imparted a distinct woody flavor to the water.

In the 1800s, lead pipes came into popularity due to their durability and low cost. However, it was eventually recognized that lead water mains were causing lead poisoning, and by the 1920s, an increasing number of municipalities were prohibiting the use of lead pipes to convey drinking water. Long before Flint, Michigan, one of the worst lead poisoning disasters took place in Lowell, Massachusetts in the 1890s, where some of the drinking water tested contained 1,300 times the current EPA drinking water standard. Werner Troesken, an economist at the University of Pittsburgh, authored an entire book about widespread lead poisoning in turn of the century America from lead water mains.

Modern Times

Pipe_Crush_Test_corrected_horiz-300x171 — Advanced Condition Assessment for Pipeline Rehabilitation helps determine which pipes in a water distribution system are in need of rehabilitation or replacement.

Because lead pipes were recognized to have negative health effects, cast iron water mains because the popular choice in the early 1900s. In use sporadically since 1455 when Germany laid the first recorded cast iron water main in history, cast iron offered a strong, durable, and safe means by which to convey water. Many municipalities on the east coast of America still have cast iron pipes in place that were laid over a century ago. Since their useful life expectancy is 75-125 years, many of these cast iron mains are nearing the end of their useful life or are overdue for replacement. Unfortunately, universal replacement of these failing mains is impossible due to the sheer volume of outdated mains combined with the shrinking budgets and increased regulations that municipalities are currently facing. Therefore, many municipalities are turning to more methodical means of determining which mains should be replaced, such as Advanced Condition Assessment for Pipeline Rehabilitation, which determines the amount of useful life left in a main, and Capital Efficiency Plans™, which identify areas of water systems most in need of rehabilitation, repair, or replacement. Systematically determining utilities’ most critical needs enables efficient use of their limited infrastructure dollars.

Ductile iron main is the material of choice today; shown, Milford Water Company water main install; design, construction administration, and resident observation by Tata & Howard

One of the most important modern innovations in water supply is the development of ductile iron in 1948. First used commercially in 1955, ductile iron main is still used today and boasts the longevity of cast iron pipe with the additional benefits of increased flexibility and strength. In addition to ductile iron, modern day water mains are also constructed from polyvinyl chloride (PVC) plastic pipe.

Looking Ahead

Many advances have been made in the conveyance of water since the early days of the Minoans, with several major innovations occurring during the last century. Building on historical knowledge as well as an ever increasing understanding of water chemistry, toxicology, and engineering, water distribution methodology is likely to continue to evolve in ways that will ensure our water is safe, clean, and abundant for future generations.

World Environment Day 2016

Our world is an amazing place and since 1973, we have dedicated June 5^th to celebrate and acknowledge our beautiful planet. The main focus of this day is to raise awareness of the importance of a healthy and green environment. Air pollution, poor water quality, and unsustainable practices with farming and consumption are just some of the issues we see everyday in the news and other media. As individuals who call Earth home, it is up to us to solve the environmental issues which we hear about all too often. Through simple and effective actions, we can all join the race to make the world a better place. Below are some unique and efficient ways to make our lives eco-friendly as we prepare to celebrate World Environment Day.

Get Involved!

As World Environment Day approaches, it is important to get outside and participate in saving our planet. Tata & Howard took initiative in the 17^th annual Charles River Earth Day Cleanup in Dedham, Massachusetts. Volunteers from the company, along with 3,000 others, picked up trash along the Charles River and made a positive impact on our local environment. Everyone is encouraged to volunteer and get involved in their local communities. Visit https://www.volunteercleanup.org for local volunteering opportunities and meet some great people along the way.

Say Bye to the Bottled Water

Keeping ourselves hydrated is one of the healthiest things we can do for ourselves, but choosing bottled water may cost the environment far more than it does our wallets. Each year, 17 million gallons of oil are used in the production of bottled water. With a gallon of bottled water costing four times more than a gallon of gasoline, it is worth the thought to give tap water a chance. Here at Tata & Howard, we recognize that carrying and refilling our own water bottles with tap water is an important step in saving the environment. Drinking tap water keeps our water dollars local so that our communities can fund water improvement projects and other important water initiatives. Only one percent of Earth’s freshwater is safe for human consumption so its up to us to keep it clean and use it efficiently. For more information on reasons to choose tap water over bottled water, see the downloadable infographic below.

Be Mindful of Food Waste

The annual amount of food waste in the US is enough to feed one billion hungry people in the world. This food waste often ends up in landfills packed tight and covered in trash. Although most food is biodegradable, it does not biodegrade when it is piled with trash and other non biodegradable substances. Therefore, if biodegradable material is sent to a landfill, it becomes part of the problem. The best way to avoid this is to be mindful of the food we buy and consume, and to try to change our buying habits so that we waste less food. When we do need to dispose of food, the best way to do so is by composting. Composting is an excellent way to recycle unused food scraps back into a healthy environment in a controlled way. Some communities have local composting programs but it can also be done at home, even indoors.

Lack of understanding about expiration dates is also a large contributing factor to food waste in the US. Expiration dates refer to a product’s quality, not safety. We can help extend the life of perishables by keeping them at the proper storage temperature, and extra food should be donated to food banks BEFORE it reaches expiration, as food banks cannot accept expired food. Tata & Howard practices strong philanthropy by donating both food and money to local food banks to help feed everyone efficiently. On June 5^th, Tata & Howard encourages everyone to go through their pantries and donate to a local organization for people who need it. Not only will it help save our environment, but will also help the local people in our own communities.

Come Together and Travel Smart

For many people, riding a bicycle or walking to work may be impossible, but there are other excellent ways we can reduce our negative impact on the environment and get where we need to go. Carpooling is a great option. Coworkers who ride to work or lunch together not only help the environment, they also enjoy quality time which leads to team building and a more positive work environment. On our off time, it makes sense to combine all of our necessary errands into one trip. Taking one big trip to get groceries, dry cleaning, and drugstore items can greatly decrease our gas emissions that pollute the air and water in the environment. Americans in recent years have begun to drive less and use other means of public transportation or physical exercise. This trend is exactly what we need to better our planet. On World Environment Day, Tata & Howard encourages everyone to practice eco-friendly transportation. Even if it is only for one day, it will make a difference.

What to Take Away

Our world is awesome but it is not perfect. Our actions of pollution and unsustainable practices are the main contributors to the very real problems that we are currently facing. Actions taken today do make a difference and the more people we can get on board to help the better. On this World Environment Day, let’s all take time to lend a helping hand to our planet. It is up to us as individuals to take action and better our environment. Taking small steps and making an effort to improve the world in which we live is important not only on World Environment Day, but every day. Even if it is a small step, it is still a step in the right direction.

Happy World Environment Day!

National Dam Safety Awareness Day

There are over 87,000 dams in the United States. With one-third of those dams posing a serious threat to people’s lives and property if they fail, dam safety is nothing to ignore. Dams are a critical part of our infrastructure providing flood protection, water supply, hydropower, irrigation, and recreation. Although dam safety may not seem to be a big concern, dam failure can affect people for miles and miles, with sometimes fatal results. National Dam Safety Awareness Day is a day to acknowledge the progress we have made in making our dams safe structures and the continuous progress we still have yet to make.

Damage caused by Lake Delhi Dam failure in Iowa, July 27, 2010

As our population keeps growing, our dams are getting older and some are even deteriorating. A dam can fail within hours of the first signs of breeching. Dam safety is a shared responsibility. Dam owners, engineers, community planners, along with federal and state leaders all have important roles in keeping dams running efficiently and safely.

The National Dam Safety Program (NDSP), led by FEMA, has been working for 30 years to keep Americans safe from dam failures. The NDSP assists states in establishing and maintaining dam safety programs along with providing technical training to state and federal dam safety staff. Their support for research and development has greatly helped raise awareness about improper dam safety along with lessening the impact on a community if a dam were to fail.

Why Dams Fail

One of the most frequent ways dams fail is overtopping. Overtopping is a strong indicator of an unsafe dam. This can happen due to a number of reasons but typically it is from inadequate spillway design, debris blockage, or settlement of the dam crest. Overtopping accounts for about 34% of all dam failures in the United States and can also lead to erosion of the downstream face of the dam. Without proper maintenance of the downstream face, the dam is at a heightened risk of failure. Wind and other harsh weather conditions can cause waves to erode the upstream face which can make the dam unsafe during heavy rainfall or flash floods.

Missouri River Flood: Breeching of the levee at mile 550 in Aitchison County, June 19, 2011

Other important factors that can cause dam failure are seepage and foundation defects. These defects account for about 30% of dam failures in the US, typically due to slide failure. If seepage or other factors weaken the soil supporting a dam, the overall strength of the dam greatly diminishes, creating the potential for a landslide-like affect.

Improper construction measures such as insufficient soil testing also contribute to dam failures. When permeable cavities or course gravel are present in dam foundations, seepage is a big concern because it erodes the soil at a fast rate. This often results in the dam settling or sinking which causes failure. A dam can fail by water passing under, over, through, or around it. Every dam should be properly connected to the ground and constructed using the best materials and methods to meet current design and construction standards.

How to Prevent Failures

When constructing and maintaining a dam, taking the proper engineering steps is vital. For example, completing sufficient soil tests prior to construction helps ensure that the dam will be adequately supported. The soil on the actual site should be examined before any detailed planning is put into place. It is also important to confirm the existence of impervious clay to seal the excavation and form the core of the bank. Failures can be prevented if the contractor is aware of any soil limitations at the site.

Dam failures have taken the lives of hundreds of people in recent decades so it is important to hire the right contractors to do the proper work. Nothing can take the place of a reliable and reputable contractor. Having experienced engineers and machine operators greatly reduces the risk of failure. It is important to review every employee’s credentials before starting a job and to always seek professional advice from an engineer when planning and designing a dam. Improper construction and inspection can lead to a weak structure, which can be dangerous and, sometimes, even fatal.

Maintenance and inspection must be routinely completed in order to keep dams safe. If a problem associated with a dam is not addressed in a timely manner, it can become more dangerous as time goes on. Dam inspectors should document every inspection in order to accurately assess needed repairs. While maintaining a dam, vegetation control, erosion repair, and clearing debris from spillways should be a routine practice. A healthy layer of grass can help prevent erosion, and any debris within 25 feet of the dam should be removed. A poorly maintained dam can cost the owner more to repair than a dam which is regularly inspected and checked for needed repairs.

Emergency Action Plans

Damage left behind after the Teton Dam failure, Rexburg, Idaho, 1976

173 dams across the country have failed since 2005 so it is important to know what your community’s Emergency Action Plan (EAP) is if a local dam were to fail. An up-to-date EAP is critical to reduce the risk of lost lives and property damage. A good EAP accomplishes three main goals: identify the area below the dam that would be flooded, establish a line of communication for the dam owner and emergency response, and provide warnings and evacuations to be conducted by local emergency teams. Below are the six essential elements of a successful EAP.

Notification Flowchart. This is to identify who should be notified by whom, and in what priority. This information is crucial for the notification of the persons in charge of taking emergency actions. The flowchart should have detailed information about each position in the chart such as title, office, and multiple ways of contacting that individual. EAPs should include the residents and businesses downstream of the dam that should be notified in case of an emergency. Proper communication and assigned roles can drastically reduce the impacts of a dam failure.
Emergency Detection, Evaluation, and Classification. This ensures that the appropriate course of action is taken based on the urgency of the situation. Having procedures in place to classify an emergency situation properly will better prepare a community to activate their EAP before a catastrophe occurs. Early detection of a potential problem can save hundreds of lives and millions of dollars in property damage.
Responsibilities. When an emergency occurs, everyone should know their role in reacting to the situation. Typically, the dam owner’s responsibilities include developing, maintaining, and implementing the EAP while state and emergency management officials are responsible for warning and evacuation. Without proper assignment of responsibilities, the EAP would be ineffective.
Preparedness. This section outlines actions to be taken before an emergency occurs. Preparedness actions are taken to moderate or minimize the effects of a dam failure and to identify specific responses to be taken in emergencies.
Inundation Maps. An inundation map identifies the areas affected if a dam were to fail. This map is important in identifying a strategy to notify and evacuate areas in danger. These maps graphically display flooded areas and show travel times for wave front and flood peaks at critical locations.
Appendices. This section contains information directly applicable to the actions of the dam owner and the emergency management parties. The appendices provide information that supports the material used to develop the EAP such as maintenance requirements and dam break investigations.

In Conclusion

Dams serve an important role in our nation’s infrastructure. Millions of people in every state rely on dams to bring them benefits such as flood control, water supply, irrigation, recreational areas, and renewable energy. Safe operation and maintenance is important to sustaining these advantages and avoiding disasters which are very often preventable. Dams fail for a number of reasons but the primary source of failure is poor inspection and maintenance, inadequate design, and improper operation. Know your risk when it comes to dam failure in your community. Getting familiar with your community’s EAP and level of risk from a dam failure can greatly help you in an emergency situation. National Dam Safety Awareness Day is an opportunity to raise awareness about our nations deteriorating dams and to take steps in making them safer structures for our community.

Happy National Dam Safety Awareness Day!

Summertime, Beaches, and Water Quality

Memorial Day is the generally accepted start of summer to most New England communities. Pools are opened, grills are wheeled out from storage, flowers are planted, and beaches are officially opened. And while summer is absolutely breathtaking in New England, it is also a time of increased stress on water quality and supply.

Water Quality

Defined by the EPA as a sandy, pebbly, or rocky shore of a body of water, beaches provide recreation for approximately 100 million United States residents over the age of 16 each year. Families flock to beaches during the summer months to enjoy activities such as swimming, surfing, boating, fishing, parasailing, exploring, walking, and sunbathing. Beaches not only include the sandy expanses with boardwalks and cottage rentals along the coastline, but also lake and riverfront areas, ponds, estuaries, and lagoons, some of which are even found in urban areas. Beaches are also an integral part of the the United States economy and provide habitat to many species.

Unfortunately, because of the huge popularity of beaches in the summer, water quality can suffer. Beach closures are common during the summer months, and are a result of pollutants and pathogens entering the water. One of the most common sources of water pollution is human fecal matter from leaky septic systems and sewer overflows. Human waste contains a variety of harmful organisms, including bacteria, viruses, and parasites, that can cause illnesses such as gastroenteritis, hepatitis, and skin infection to humans. Another source of pollution is animal fecal matter from agricultural and stormwater runoff. While runoff contains a number of pollutants including motor oil, pesticides, fertilizers, and trash, arguably the most dangerous and disruptive is animal feces. A single gram of dog feces contains over 23 million parvovirus bacteria in addition to whipworms, hookworms, roundworms, threadworms, giardia, and coccidian. These pathogens and parasites enter waterways through runoff and can have detrimental effects on waterways, aquatic life, and humans.

algal-bloom-300x225 — Harmful algal blooms are toxic to marine life Image: U.S. Geological Survey, Dr. Jennifer L. Graham

Algal blooms are also more common in summer months. Algal blooms are caused by a variety of sources including warmer temperatures, high light, and increased turbidity, but the most contributive source is nutrients in the water from human and animal waste. Some algal blooms are extremely dangerous and have the potential to sicken or kill humans and animals, while less toxic blooms still cause harm to local economies and the environment. Commonly referred to as red tide, cyanobacteria, or blue-green algae, algal blooms effectively cause dead zones in the water and often require significantly increased treatment costs to remedy.

Water Supply

In addition to water quality issues at beaches, water supply can also be a concern. Since the population at popular vacation spots such as Cape Cod and the Maine beaches increases astronomically in the summer months, so does the demand for water. And not only are these seasonal visitors doing laundry, cooking, and drinking the water — they are also watering their lawns and gardens, which accounts for over half of a household’s total water usage. It is therefore understandable how a small community’s water supply can easily become taxed during the high summer season.

Solutions

Fortunately, there are policies and regulations in place that directly address seasonal water quality and quantity issues. The EPA, along with other governmental agencies, have enacted several laws that aim to protect the quality of our nation’s beaches:

The Clean Water Act
The Clean Water Act, established by the EPA in 1971, establishes the basic structure for regulating discharges of pollutants into the waters of the United States and regulating quality standards for surface waters. Under the Clean Water Act, the following programs specifically address water pollution:

The National Pollutant Discharge Elimination (NPDES) Permit Program
The NPDES program controls water pollution by regulating point sources that discharge pollutants into waters of the United States.

The Pollution Budgeting (TMDL) Program
The TMDL program requires states, territories, and authorized tribes to develop lists of impaired waters, establish priority rankings for waters, and develop Total Maximum Daily Loads (TMDLs). TMDLs related to beaches include pathogens, nutrients, and trash.

The Beaches Environmental Assessment and Coastal Health (BEACH) Act of 2000
The BEACH Act amends the Clean Water Act to better protect public health at our nation’s beaches. The BEACH Act requires EPA to recommend water quality criteria that states, territories, and tribes can adopt into their water quality standards for pathogens and pathogen indicators in coastal recreational waters. The BEACH Act also authorizes grants to states, territories, and eligible Tribes to monitor coastal and Great Lakes beaches and to notify the public when water quality standards are exceeded.

Marine Debris Research, Prevention, and Reduction Act (MDRPRA)
The MDRPRA established programs within the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) and the United States Coast Guard (USCG) that identify, determine sources of, assess, reduce, and prevent marine debris. MDRPRA also reactivates the Interagency Marine Debris Coordinating Committee, chaired by NOAA.

The Coastal Zone Management Act
The Coastal Zone Management Act is administered by NOAA, Office of Ocean and Coastal Resource Management (OCRM), and provides for management of the nation’s coastal resources, including the Great Lakes.

The Act to Prevent Pollution from Ships (APPS)
The APPS implements the provisions of Marpol 73/78, the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution From Ships, 1973 as modified by the Protocol of 1978. (“Marpol” is short for marine pollution.) In 1987, APPS was amended by the Marine Plastic Pollution Research and Control Act. The MPPRCA requires EPA and National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) to study the effects of improper disposal of plastics on the environment and methods to reduce or eliminate such adverse effects. MPPRCA also requires EPA, NOAA, and the U.S. Coast Guard (USCG) to evaluate the use of volunteer groups in monitoring floatable debris.

Shore Protection Act (SPA)
The SPA is applicable to transportation of municipal and commercial wastes in coastal waters. The SPA aims to minimize debris from being deposited into coastal waters from inadequate waste handling procedures by waste transporting vessels. EPA, in consultation with the Coast Guard, is responsible for developing regulations under the SPA.

Marine Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries Act (MPRSA)
The MPRSA, also called the Ocean Dumping Act, generally prohibits the following:

Transportation of material from the United States for the purpose of ocean dumping;
Transportation of material from anywhere for the purpose of ocean dumping by U.S. agencies or U.S.-flagged vessels; and
Dumping of material transported from outside the United States into the U.S. territorial sea.

In addition to the numerous governmental regulations protecting water quality and our nation’s beaches, local communities also implement policies that specifically aim to address water supply issues. Some of these include the following:

Outdoor water restrictions and bans: Many communities implement water bans in the summer that severely limit or prohibit outdoor watering.
Public education: Many summer communities implement public outreach that includes requests for voluntary conservation.
Leak detection and repair: Because water loss is such a serious issue across the United States, many communities are actively implementing leak detection and repair policies. Repairing older infrastructure typically has an exponential return on investment and also serves as a means of public education, with repair crews in the street garnering local media attention.

In Conclusion

Beaches are one of the most traditional and enjoyable means of summer entertainment for families and individuals, and they provide a plethora of recreational activities for all ages. Protecting our beaches and recreational waters is imperative to the health of our nation’s citizens and economy, and we are fortunate that our nation’s governmental agencies and local communities proactively work to maintain the health of our waters. We as individuals can also help to protect our beaches and waterways by reducing our personal water consumption, cleaning up after our pets, and being mindful of pesticide and fertilizer usage. Together, we can assure that present and future generations are able to enjoy our nation’s beautiful beaches.

Surf’s up!

Infrastructure Week 2016 — #InfrastructureMatters

It is scary to realize how complacent our country has become in accepting crumbling infrastructure as the norm. Our international competitors are investing more in high speed rail, modern airports, and bigger shipping ports, while just about every few months, some kind of preventable catastrophic infrastructure event happens in America. Yet our leaders are still not spurred into taking decisive action.

Infrastructure matters. It matters, in big ways and in small, to our country, our economy, our quality of life, our safety, and our communities. Roads, bridges, rails, ports, airports, pipes, the power grid, and broadband — infrastructure matters to companies that manufacture and ship goods. It matters to our daily commutes and our summer vacations. Infrastructure determines if we can drink water straight from our taps and flush our toilets or do our laundry. It brings electricity in to our homes. Ultimately, infrastructure matters to every aspect of our daily lives.

That is why Tata & Howard has teamed up with hundreds of other groups around the country to participate in Infrastructure Week 2016. We’re raising awareness about the need to invest in infrastructure, which is the backbone of our economy, locally and nationally.

Every year America fails to adequately invest in our infrastructure, the United States becomes less competitive, our economy grows more slowly, and families and businesses lose valuable time and money. The goods we manufacture cost more when they get stuck on congested highways, rerouted around structurally deficient bridges, and stranded at outdated ports. Continued reliance on World War II era technology and airports that lack sufficient capacity cause U.S. consumers to skip travel, costing the economy tens of billions of dollars each year.

Particularly in the northeast, water and wastewater infrastructure has reached the end of its useful life. A water main breaks every two minutes, and we have seen the tragedy that can come from utilizing outdated technology, such as lead pipes in Flint, Michigan. And, our failure to invest in infrastructure ripples throughout the economy: for every $1 invested in infrastructure, $2 in output is created – putting our friends and neighbors to work.

Decades of underfunding and deferred maintenance have pushed our country to the brink of a national infrastructure crisis. And we have begun to accept preventable tragedies as normal, when they should in fact be entirely unacceptable: fatal mass transit accidents; deadly, poisonous drinking water; sickening gas leaks; levee-breaking floods; deadly pipeline bursts; and rivers contaminated with raw sewage. America’s poorly-funded infrastructure and transportation systems can be more than just inconvenient; they can be harmful to our health and safety. Importantly, all of these tragedies are preventable with adequate investment – they are not merely unfortunate accidents we must endure.

Every dollar we invest in infrastructure is an investment in our neighborhoods and our future. Because our roads are in poor condition and littered with potholes, U.S. drivers pay more than $500 in avoidable vehicle repairs and operating costs each year. In Connecticut, the areas of New Haven, Bridgeport, and Stamford have had 45% of their roadways rated “poor” by TRIP, a Washington, D.C.-based national transportation research group. Instead of wasting over 40 hours each year stuck in traffic jams, we could spend that time being productive.

Americans deserve a 21^st century transportation network; modern aviation systems; safe, clean, reliable water and wastewater service; broadband access in every community; and, a freight network and ports that can keep pace in the global economy. To grow our economy, keep Americans safe, and maintain strong communities, we need all levels of government and the private sector to work together to prioritize the rebuilding of our nation’s infrastructure.

During Infrastructure Week, groups are coming together to recognize progress and leadership at the federal, state, and local levels – and there is much to celebrate. For example, communities throughout New England have been proactive in lead service line replacement, and the Massachusetts Water Resources Authority (MWRA) announced in March that $100 million in interest-free loans would be made available to its member water communities to fully replace lead service lines.

But our work is nowhere near complete. As we look to 2016 and beyond, closing our country’s trillion-dollar infrastructure investment gap demands a strong federal partner in funding large and transformative projects. We are going to need real collaboration between the public and private sectors to identify and implement innovative solutions. And leaders at all levels are going to need to finally wake up and commit to building a long-term, sustainable plan to invest in America’s infrastructure. There is too much at stake to fail at any of this. Infrastructure matters.

A History of Dams: From Ancient Times to Today

A dam is a human-made structure that is primarily used to hold back water. Dams are constructed for many purposes, including reservoir creation, flood prevention, irrigation, and hydroelectric power. Today, there are almost 50,000 large dams in use worldwide. The United States has the second largest number of dams in the world at 5,500, and China has the most with a whopping 19,000. The United States has 50 major dams – the most in the world. But before we had the Hoover Dam or any of the other major dams of today, our ancestors had to learn about dam engineering, and some of that was done through trial and error.

The World’s First Dam

The first known dam to be built is the Jawa Dam, which is actually the largest in a series of dams that are all part of one reservoir system. Located in modern-day Jordan, the Jawa Dam was originally constructed around 3,000 BCE in what was then Mesopotamia. Surprisingly, the Jawa Dam was actually an architectural feat of the times. While most ancient dams were simple gravity dams constructed of gravel and masonry, the Jawa Dam was reinforced with rock fill behind the upstream wall in order to protect the wall from water pressure breach. This safety feature was incredibly innovative for this time period. Unfortunately, the reinforced design was forgotten after the Jawa Dam and was not actually “reinvented” until modern times. The Jawa Dam site is arguably the most important archaeological site in the history of large-scale water projects, and the dam itself was so well designed and constructed that the ancient structure stood until just a few years ago, when it was partially ruined due to physical intervention. In its prime, the Jawa Dam was 15 feet tall, 80 feet long, with a base of 15 feet. It created the Jawa Reservoir that had a capacity of 1.1 million cubic feet.

Ancient Dams

Remains of the poorly designed Sadd el-Kafara

Subsequent ancient dams were built by several cultures with varying rates of success. Approximately 400 years after the construction of the highly successful Jawa Dam, Egyptians built the Sadd el-Kafara, or Dam of the Pagans, most likely to supply water to the local quarries outside of Cairo rather than for irrigation, since the flooding Nile would have supplied plenty of water to the farmers. After ten years of construction, the masonry dam was 37 feet tall, 348 feet long, with a base of 265 feet, contained over 100,000 tons of gravel and stone, and had a limestone cover to resist erosion. Unfortunately, as it was nearing completion, it failed. Due to poor design and lack of a spillway, the dam washed away during a heavy rainfall and was never repaired or completed. Discouraged by the failure of this massive project, ancient Egyptians were dissuaded from constructing other dams until many years later.

The Romans, highly regarded for their advances in hydraulic engineering, were prolific in dam construction during the height of the empire. In addition to the vast network of aqueducts, the Romans built a plethora of gravity dams, most notably the Subiaco Dams, which were constructed around 60 AD to create a pleasure lake for Emperor Nero. The Subiaco Dams were a series of three gravity dams on the Aniene River in Subiaco, Italy, the largest of which stood 165 feet tall and held the honor of being the tallest dam in the world until its destruction in 1305, historically attributed to two careless monks. The Romans also constructed the world’s first arch dam in the Roman province of Gallia Narbonensis, now modern-day southwest France, in the 1^st century BCE. The remains of the Glanum Dam, the first recorded true arch dam in history, were discovered in 1763. Unfortunately, a modern arched gravity dam replaced the ancient structure in 1891, and all remnants of the Glanum Dam were lost. The Romans were also responsible for constructing the world’s first buttress dams, although they tended to fail due to their too-thin construction. One third of all dams on the Iberian Peninsula were buttress dams.

The Cornalvo Dam, a Roman gravity dam in built in the 1st or 2nd century AD, still supplies water to the people of Meriden, Spain.

Asian cultures also contributed to dam engineering. As early as 400 BCE, Asians built earthen embankments dams to store water for the cities of Ceylon, or modern-day Sri Lanka. In the 5^th century AD, the Sinhalese built several dams to form reservoirs to catch the monsoon rains for their intricate irrigation system, and many of these reservoirs are still in use today. Around the 12^th century AD, about 4,000 dams were built by an egotistical Sinhalese ruler, King Parakrama Babu. While these structures were gargantuan for the time, such as one dam that stretched for almost nine miles, they are not considered to have any true engineering significance, as they did not supply water to the villages. Built to massage the king’s giant ego, these enormous dams were monuments rather than functional structures.

Japan and India also contributed to early dam engineering, with much success. In fact, five of the ten oldest dams still in use are located in these two countries. The oldest operational dam in the world, the Lake Homs Dam in Syria, was built around 1300. The masonry gravity dam is over one mile long, 23 feet high, and creates Lake Homs, which still supplies water to the people of Homs today.

Middle Ages

During the dark ages, dam construction came to a near halt, resuming around the 15^th century AD. During this time, no major contributions to dam engineering were made, and the majority of the dams constructed in Europe, where rainfall is plentiful and regular, were modest structures. It wasn’t until the 1850s, when civil engineering professor William John Macquorn Rankine at Glasgow University demonstrated a better understanding of earth stability and structural performance, that dam engineering improved. In fact, Rankine’s work was so innovative, it contributed to the acceptance of civil engineering as a valid university subject and improved the status of civil engineers. Since Rankine, geological, hydrological, and structural scientific contributions have been extensive, and the understanding of dam engineering has improved significantly as a result.

Modern Times

Major advances in concrete dam design were made from 1853 to 1910 by British and French engineers. During this time, understanding of the relationship between the precise weight and profile of gravity dams and the horizontal thrust of water increased extensively. In 1910, further advances were made as engineers began to take a more three dimensional approach to dam engineering, examining the effect of individual stresses and deflections on multiple points rather than on the structure as a whole. By recognizing the complexity of the structure and understanding its interconnectedness, engineers were able to make exponential advances in dam engineering. As a result of this enhanced understanding, model techniques were implemented at this time. Originally built in rubber, plaster, plasticine, or concrete, modelling is now also done digitally, allowing multi-faceted and comprehensive testing and examination of structural stability.

The world’s largest and most complex dams have all been built within the last century, due to engineering as well as technological advances. In addition to supplying water and controlling flooding, modern dams are often constructed to provide hydroelectric power. The Hoover Dam, a concrete arch-gravity dam constructed in the Black Canyon of the Colorado River in 1936, is a prime example of the major advances made in dam engineering. The massive dam, which impounds Lake Mead, stands a whopping 726 feet tall and has a reservoir capacity of 28,537,000 acre feet. It also provides four billion kilowatt-hours of hydroelectric power — enough to supply the private and public electrical needs of over eight million people in Nevada, Arizona, and California— each year. Once the tallest dam in the world, the Hoover Dam lost its title to Switzerland’s 820-foot-tall Mauvoisin Dam in 1957. In the United States, California’s Oroville Dam is now the tallest at 770 feet.

Looking Forward

dam-removal-300x182 — Workers dismantle the Savage Rapids Dam on the Rogue River in Oregon. (Photo courtesy of Oregon State University)

While dams have been being constructed for over 5,000 years, the last 100 years have seen the most significant contributions in dam engineering. With the increased understanding of earth sciences comes the realization that some dams are actually detrimental to the earth’s ecology. Because of this knowledge, over 900 dams in the United States have been removed since 1990. Also, the understanding of dam safety has made significant strides over the last 100 years, and dam safety programs have been implemented in 49 of the 50 US states — only Alabama has no dam safety program. Of those 49 states, all but eight also require that all significant and high hazard dams require Emergency Action Plans (EAPs).

With the tens of thousands of existing large dams throughout the world, and the ever-increasing demand for water and power, dams will continue to make a significant impact on modern day life. And, as is evidenced by history, dam engineering will continue to evolve as additional innovations, discoveries, and technological advances are made.

The Criticality of Unidirectional Flushing (UDF) Programs for Water Utilities

Water utilities today are faced with a unique set of difficulties. Population growth has resulted in unprecedented demand while climate change has caused supply to dwindle. Increased regulations have forced utilities to invest more and more capital into treatment while budgets have shrunk. In addition, our nation’s aging infrastructure has forced water utilities to heavily invest in repair and replacement of the distribution system. Therefore, it has become critical that utilities utilize the most cost-effective and efficient methodologies in order to maintain and improve their water systems.

A key issue in distribution systems is tuberculation, or build-up, on distribution pipe walls. These deposits, most frequently caused by corrosion and microbial activity, affect both the quality and quantity of the water supply. Excessive tuberculation greatly reduces distribution system efficiency and has a negative impact on water quality. In fact, AWWA has noted that distribution system deficiencies are responsible for over 25 percent of waterborne disease outbreaks in the United States each year.

Fortunately, implementation of a planned, systematic Unidirectional Flushing (UDF) Program helps to reduce these issues. UDF is utilized to maintain a distribution system and provides the added benefit of learning critical information about the system. This information allows utilities to efficiently plan and make the most imperative improvements to the system. And while the primary goal of UDF is to clean water mains, there are also several peripheral benefits. A routinely implemented UDF Program helps to regularly exercise hydrants and valves, prolonging the life of the valves and helping to locate any closed or broken valves. Flushing also helps to pinpoint the cause of water quality or pressure issues in a specific area of the system while determining discrepancies between the hydraulic model and the distribution system. Flushing frequently enables system issues to be discovered before they become critical and require emergency service, giving utilities sufficient time to address and budget them.

Because demand is highest in summer and would make flushing impractical, and low temperatures in winter would cause unsafe conditions from flushed water freezing on roadways and sidewalks, flushing is typically performed in the spring and fall. Currently, Tata & Howard is assisting the communities of Haverhill and Manchester By The Sea, MA and Norwalk First Taxing District in Norwalk, CT with their annual UDF Programs. Both AWWA and MassDEP recommend that UDF be performed on an annual basis, at a minimum. If a distribution system is too large to perform UDF annually, flushing should instead be scheduled in rotation so that all parts of the distribution system are exercised on a regular basis.

A regularly scheduled UDF Program is one of the simplest and most cost-effective ways of maintaining the health and safety of a water distribution system. For comprehensive information on UDF Programs including case studies, please download our UDF whitepaper instantly here.

Earth Day 2016 — 10 Simple Steps to Improve the Environment

Earth Day, which falls on April 22 each year, is celebrated globally by over one billion people and is largely credited with being the catalyst for the modern environmental movement. The first Earth Day was celebrated in the United States in 1970, and was quickly followed by passage of the Clean Air Act later in 1970, the Clean Water Act in 1972, and the Endangered Species Act in 1973. In 1990, Earth Day expanded to a global level, being celebrated in 141 countries and bringing environmental issues to the forefront of the global scene. Earth Day has since become the world’s largest global observance.

While Earth Day boasts some impressive statistics, simple changes are still the easiest and most effective way to practice environmentalism in our daily lives. If all one billion people who celebrate Earth Day were to implement just one small change, the cumulative effect would be monumental. At Tata & Howard, we are big believers in continuously improving our personal habits in support of the environment, in the form of small steps. For example, this year we expanded our recycling efforts to include comprehensive, single stream recycling, and we replaced the corporate office’s Keurig with an environmentally-friendly Bean2Cup brewer. So in celebration of Earth Day, we’ve compiled 10 simple steps to improve our environment that we can all easily implement in our daily lives:

1. Eliminate the use of paper plates and plastic utensils
Paper plates are made from virgin wood, contributing to deforestation, and are manufactured by paper mills that use toxic chemicals that can contaminate waterways. Speaking of water, did you know that it takes half a gallon of water to produce ONE 10-inch, medium-weight dinner plate? And plastic utensils are no better. Plastic cutlery requires petroleum and chemicals to produce, fossil fuels to transport, and is typically made from non-recyclable plastic.

2. Use a refillable water bottle — and fill it with tap water!
Most families toss almost 90 pounds of plastic in the trash every year, and plastic takes about 500 years to biodegrade. An abysmal one in seven plastic bottles is recycled, contributing heavily to the world’s plastic pollution problem. In addition, bottled water is hardly any better than tap water in terms of quality and safety. Bottled water costs more per gallon than gasoline, even though it is very frequently just tap water with some extra minerals thrown in for taste. Drinking tap water from a refillable water bottle is smart not only for the environment, but also for your health — and your wallet.

3. Choose reusable over disposable
As mentioned, paper and plastic both have a significantly negative impact on the environment. Instead, bring your own reusable bags to the grocery store, use cloth napkins instead of paper, replace paper towels with microfiber cloths, and choose cloth diapers for baby.

4. Repair leaky faucets and toilets
Leaky toilets can waste up to 200 gallons of water per day — or the equivalent usage of an entire family of four — and leaking faucets can waste up to 3,000 gallons of water per year. Repairing these leaks will help save our world’s most precious resource, and will also lower your water bill.

5. Collect rainwater for use in gardens
Collecting rainwater is easy with a rain barrel, which catches stormwater runoff from rooftops. This collected water can be used later to water lawns, gardens, and flower beds. Rain barrels come in a variety of styles and colors, and can make a beautiful addition to your landscaping while helping to protect the environment.

6. Turn off and unplug all electronics when not in use
Computers, cell phones, printers, video gaming consoles, tablets, wearable fitness trackers — these all depend on electricity, and are often left plugged in and running, even when not in use. Completely shutting down and unplugging these devices when not in use will help to reduce your carbon footprint — and your electric bill.

7. Buy only fair-trade, sustainable coffee
Traditionally grown coffee is an environmental nightmare: it is one of the largest contributors to the decimation of our world’s rainforests, is the second-most pesticide laden food crop (second only to tobacco), and is often dependent on unfair labor practices. By choosing fair trade, eco-certified coffee, you are assuring that the coffee you are drinking is both environmentally friendly and humane. Not one to brew your own joe? Bring a reusable mug when visiting your local coffee shop.

white_clover_groundcover — White clover is hardy, disease-resistant, and stays green even during moderate drought

8. Green up your lawn
No, not with fertilizer — with ground cover! Outdoor watering accounts for over 30% of household water usage in the United States, and planting ground cover can reduce that outdoor water usage as much as 50%. Ground cover does not require supplemental watering, remains green even during times of moderate drought, and helps prevent soil compaction. In the northeast, white clover is a pretty and popular choice.

9. Start a compost pile
Composting our vegetable and lawn scraps helps the environment in many ways. Organic waste in landfills is typically covered by trash and is therefore forced to decay in an airless state. This anaerobic decay produces methane gas, which is 21 times more potent than carbon dioxide. Therefore, composting our vegetable and lawn scraps helps to minimize the effect that landfills have on climate change while also reducing the speed at which landfills are, well…filled. Also, compost helps to feed and improve the soil, minimizing the need for chemical fertilizers.

10. Switch to eco-friendly cleaning products
Traditional cleaning products rely heavily on synthetic chemicals, which are now understood to be dangerous to both the environment and our health. This year, EPA launched an initiative called Safer Choice to help individuals and businesses choose more environmentally friendly products. Safer cleaning products for every type of use, from stainless steel to carpet to laundry to dish soap, can be found on EPA’s Safer Choice website.

These are just a few ways in which we can do our part to green up the environment and to reduce our carbon footprint. This Earth Day, let’s all vow to make a few simple, small changes to improve the environment in which we all live. While one person changing one habit may be seemingly insignificant, one billion people changing that same one habit would have an unprecedented impact on the health of our world. Happy Earth Day!

National Work Zone Awareness Week: Don’t Be THAT Driver!

It’s National Work Zone Awareness Week (NWZAW) and this year’s theme is “Don’t Be THAT Driver!” Begun in 1999 by the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA), the American Traffic Safety Services Association (ATSSA), and the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) to increase public awareness of work zone safety issues, NWZAW has since become a national event, with State agencies and other pertinent organizations sponsoring and participating in educational and outreach initiatives. NWZAW is always held in April, the beginning of construction season for many organizations, and serves as an excellent time to remind drivers to be mindful of work zones and the many people who work in them.

This Year’s Theme: Don’t Be THAT Driver!

Figure 1. Work Zone Fatalities in the United States, 2005-2014. Work zone fatalities per year as follows: 2005, 1,058 fatalities; 2006, 1,004 fatalities; 2007, 831 fatalities; 2008, 716 fatalities; 2009, 680 fatalities; 2010, 586 fatalities; 2011, 590 fatalities; 2012, 617 fatalities; 2013, 593 fatalities; 2014, 669 fatalities. — Source: Fatality Analysis Reporting System (FARS): 2005-2013 FARS Final data and 2014 FARS ARF

Work zone fatalities in the United States steadily decreased from 2005-2010 due to increased awareness and safety measures. However, since 2010, the number of work zone fatalities has been slowly increasing (Figure 1). Why? Distracted driving. Smart phones have brought distracted driving accidents and fatalities to an unprecedented level, and work zones are no exception. This year’s theme of “Don’t Be THAT Driver!” reinforces the message that motorists need to constantly be alert and prepared for driving anomalies, such as work zones. Distracted drivers often do not notice changes such as brake lights or work zones in time to prevent serious accidents. Drivers who are distracted, which includes any activity other than driving, such as eating, reading, shaving, applying makeup, or using a mobile device, are up to four times more likely to be involved in a crash.

While cell phone usage is admittedly the biggest culprit, distracted driving includes ANY activity that diverts a driver’s attention. The three main types of distraction are as follows:

Visual – taking your eyes off the road. This includes cell phone usage, reading, or looking at something off the road or your passenger.
Manual – taking your hands off the wheel. This includes using a cell phone, changing the radio station, digging in the glovebox, or eating your breakfast.
Cognitive – taking your mind off what you are doing. This includes talking on your cell phone and arguing with your spouse.

Note that cell phone usage contributes to all three types of distraction. Other factors affecting work zone accidents include aggressive driving and, of course, speed. In 2014, distracted driving was responsible for 16% of fatal crashes in work zones, while speeding was a factor in 29%. The most common type of work zone crash is a rear-end collision.

Work Zone Employees — Somebody’s Loved Ones

T&H engineers at a water main installation in Milford, MA — T&H engineers at a water main installation

NWZAW is of particular import to Tata & Howard, as work zones include all types of roadway construction, including water and sewer line installation, repair, and replacement – which we do a lot of! Therefore, our engineers and resident observers are frequently present in work zones, along with construction crews and police officers. All of these people have families, parents, children, and friends. During NWZAW, we at Tata & Howard implore you to think about how fast and how safely you would want someone to drive by a work zone if your loved ones worked there. Work zones can be confusing and challenging due to traffic interruptions, workers blending in with cones and signs, and narrowed roadways. Slow down, be alert, and most importantly, pay attention! Our goal, along with NWZAW, is to see that 100% of work zone workers are safe.

Be Smart, Be Safe

Over 40,000 people are injured each year as a result of motor vehicle crashes in work zones, and every ten hours, someone in the United States is killed in a work zone. Fatal crashes occur most frequently during the summer and fall months, when construction is at its peak. Construction season is upon us, and during NWZAW, we are asking each and every one of you to think about the workers on our roadways, to drive with caution and care, and to spread the word about work zone safety. Together, we can work toward a goal of zero work zone deaths, and ensure that our engineers, supervisors, construction crews, and police officers all make it home safely for dinner.

Funding Assistance to Meet Water and Wastewater Infrastructure Needs

Water and Wastewater Infrastructure

The vast and intricate network of pipes buried beneath our feet is one of the key contributors to the economic success of our nation. Unfortunately, much of our water infrastructure was installed prior to WWII, with some east coast pipes dating back to the late 1800s. Also, many of our nation’s wastewater treatment plants were built in response to the passage of the 1974 Clean Water Act and are now 30-40 years old. Therefore, much of our nation’s water and wastewater infrastructure has reached the end of its useful life and requires repair or replacement.

The ASCE gave both Drinking Water and Wastewater a “D” grade in its 2013 Report Card for America’s Infrastructure; and because water has been so historically undervalued in America, municipalities simply do not have the funds to make the required improvements. In fact, a 2002 US EPA study titled Clean Water and Drinking Gap Analysis Report compared America’s drinking water and wastewater infrastructure needs to the available revenues of utilities. Without including exacerbating factors such as population growth or climate change, the report showed a projected gap in funding over the next 20 years of over $500 billion.

Certainly, our nation must find a way to bridge the funding gap, which will require rate increases and, therefore, community education on conservation practices as well as the value of water. And while these rate increases will provide a portion of the necessary funding, utilities and consumers alone cannot carry the full burden of the funding gap. Thankfully, there are myriad funding opportunities available to assist communities with critical water and wastewater improvements, some of which are listed below:

USDA Rural Development Water & Waste Disposal Loan & Grant Program

The USDA Rural Development (RD) Water & Waste Disposal Loan & Grant Program provides funding for clean and reliable drinking water systems, sanitary sewage disposal, sanitary solid waste disposal, and stormwater drainage to households and businesses in eligible rural areas. This program assists qualified applicants that are not otherwise able to obtain commercial credit on reasonable terms. Areas that may be served include rural areas and towns with fewer than 10,000 people, tribal lands in rural areas, and colonias.

USDA RD funding provides long-term, low-interest loans which may be combined with grants if necessary to keep user costs reasonable. Funds may be used to finance the acquisition, construction, or improvement of drinking water sourcing, treatment, storage and distribution; sewer collection, transmission, treatment, and disposal; solid waste collection, disposal and closure; and stormwater collection, transmission, and disposal.

Clean Water State Revolving Fund (CWSRF) Program

stormwater drain Established by the 1987 amendments to the Clean Water Act, the CWSRF Program is a federal-state partnership that provides a permanent, independent source of low-cost financing to communities for a wide range of water quality infrastructure projects. The program is a powerful partnership between EPA and the states that gives states the flexibility to fund a range of projects that address their highest priority water quality needs.

Using a combination of federal and state funds, state CWSRF programs provide loans to eligible recipients for many types of water infrastructure projects, including construction of publicly owned treatment works; nonpoint source; national estuary program projects; decentralized wastewater treatment systems; stormwater; water conservation, efficiency, and reuse; watershed pilot projects; energy efficiency; water reuse; security measures at publicly owned treatment works; and technical assistance.

Drinking Water State Revolving Fund (DWSRF) Program

The DWSRF Program is a federal-state partnership to help ensure safe drinking water. Created by the 1996 Amendments to the Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA), the DWSRF is a financial assistance program to help water systems and states achieve the health protection objectives of the SDWA. The program is a powerful partnership between EPA and the states. Building on a federal investment of over $17.3 billion, the state DWSRFs have provided more than $27.9 billion to water systems through 2014. This assistance was provided through over 11,400 assistance agreements for improving drinking water treatment; fixing leaky or old pipes (water distribution); improving source of water supply; replacing or constructing finished water storage tanks; and other infrastructure projects needed to protect public health.

The DWSRF Program funds a wide range of drinking water infrastructure projects, including treatment projects to install or upgrade facilities to improve drinking water quality to comply with SDWA regulations; transmission and distribution rehabilitation, replacement, or installation to improve water pressure to safe levels or to prevent contamination caused by leaky or broken pipes; rehabilitation of wells or development of eligible sources to replace contaminated sources; installation or upgrade of finished water storage tanks to prevent microbiological contamination from entering the distribution system; interconnecting two or more water systems; constructing a new system to serve homes with contaminated individual wells; and consolidating existing systems into a new regional water system.

Water Infrastructure Finance and Innovation Act (WIFIA)

Enacted in 2014 as part of the Water Resources and Reform Development Act, WIFIA establishes a financing mechanism for water and wastewater infrastructure projects to be managed by EPA Headquarters. The WIFIA program provides low interest rate financing for the construction of water and wastewater infrastructure. Funded projects must be nationally or regionally significant, and individual projects must be anticipated to cost no less than $20 million.

WIFIA works separately from, but in coordination with, the State Revolving Fund (SRF) programs to provide subsidized financing for large dollar-value projects. Eligible projects include CWSRF eligible projects; DWSRF eligible projects; projects for enhanced energy efficiency at drinking water and wastewater facilities; acquisition of property if it is integral to the project or will mitigate the environmental impact of a project; bundled SRF projects submitted under one application by an SRF program; and combinations of projects secured by a common security pledge.

Northern Border Regional Commission (NBRC)

Troy-Jay, VT received $250,000 from NBRC for upgrades to the community's wastewater treatment plant pump station — Troy-Jay, VT received $250,000 from NBRC for upgrades to the community’s wastewater treatment plant pump station

The NBRC was formed by Congress in 2008 in order to help fund economic and community development projects in Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, and New York. NBRC was formed to help alleviate distress in the hard-hit northern counties of each state. Bordering Canada, these counties generally have higher levels of unemployment, population loss, and lower incomes.

Eligible projects include those that develop the transportation, telecommunication, and basic public infrastructure within the region; assist the region in obtaining job skills and employment related education, as well as entrepreneurship, technology, and business development; provide basic health care and other public services for those areas that are severely economically distressed and underdeveloped; encourage resource conservation, tourism, recreation, and preservation of open spaces in a manner consistent with economic development goals; or support the development of renewable and alternative energy sources.

Other Funding Sources

Wastewater treatment plant in Flagstaff, AZ

In addition to those listed above, there are many other funding sources. Some of these include SWMI Grants, Water Infrastructure Assessment and Planning Grants, Community Block Development Grants (CBDG), and Watersheds & Water Quality in Massachusetts; Water Infrastructure Finance Authority of Arizona (WIFA) and Water and Wastewater Energy Efficiency Rebates through Arizona Public Service (APS) in Arizona; State Aid Grant Program (SAG) in New Hampshire; and Texas Water Development Fund (TWDF), Economically Distressed Areas Program (EDAP), Rural Water Assistance Fund (RWAF), and the State Participation Program (SPP) in Texas.

In Conclusion

Investing in water and wastewater infrastructure now is critical to the sustainability of our economy and the health of our nation. By implementing necessary rate increases and conservation techniques along with community education and robust funding assistance, our nation will have the ability to successfully to bridge the infrastructure funding gap and ensure the economic and environmental viability of our nation for both present and future generations.

Author: Heidi Parthena White